Midterm Review Essay - 963 Words

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The follow question is one of two to be answered for the midterm. - BeShow MoreRelatedMidterm Review1485 Words   |  6 PagesInteractive Management Science MSamp;E 107/207, Midterm Review The Flaw of the Averages Mindle 1 / Uncertainty vs. Risk * Risk is in the eye of the beholder * Risk reflects how uncertain outcomes cause loss or injury to a particular individual or group * Risk attitude measures the willigness to incur risk in the quest of reward * Different risks to the same uncertainty Mindle 2 / An uncertain number is a shape * A distribution * â€Å"Uncertain numbers† * Risk is subjective Read MoreMidterm Review2002 Words   |  9 Pagesï » ¿The Federal Circuit Court of Appeal has appellate jurisdiction over the U.S. Claims Court. True Which of the following terms best describes the decision reached by an arbitrator? Award The dispute resolution method that is most likely to be used by a regulatory agency to negotiate the provisions of the regulations with the interested groups so that there is less likelihood of a challenge once the regulations are promulgated is: regulatory negotiation With reference to the federal governmentRead MoreReview for Midterm I1634 Words   |  7 PagesCalifornia State University –Fullerton Econ 201- Review for Midterm I Dr. El Hag- Spring 2010 Multiple Choice Identify the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question. ____1.The slope of a line that passes through the points (10, 15) and (20, 7) is a. | -5/4. | b. | -4/5. | c. | 4/5. | d. | 5/4. | ____2.If Shawn can produce more donuts in one day than Sue can produce in one day, then a. | Shawn has a comparative advantageRead MoreGeology Midterm Review2404 Words   |  10 PagesIntroduction to Geology GEOL-101 Midterm 1 Review Based on the textbook: Understanding Earth, 6th Edition, by Grotzinger and Press CH 1: earth system Summary The human creative process, field and lab observations, and experiments help geoscientists formulate testable hypotheses (models) for how the Earth works and its history. A hypothesis is a tentative explanation focusing attention on plausible features and relationships of a working model. If a testable hypothesis is confirmed by a large Read MoreMidterm Review Bio1291 Words   |  6 PagesBiology Final Exam Review Sheet a) The identity of each element is defined by the number of protons in its nucleus a. The physical and chemical properties of each element are defined by: i. Number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus ii. Number of electrons orbiting the nucleus Proton = mass of one a positive charge Neutron = mass of one and no charge Electron = negligible mass and a negative charge Isotopes of an element a) Isotopes are different forms of the same element a.Read MoreMidterm Review Essay9272 Words   |  38 PagesChapter 16 1.) All of the following factors contributed to explosive economic growth during the Gilded Age EXCEPT: Question options: | a) | availability of capital for investment. | | b) | a growing supply of labor. | | c) | abundant natural resources. | | d) | low tariffs. | | e) | federal land grants to railroads. | | | 1 / 1 point | 2.) By 1890, the majority of Americans: Question options: | a) | worked as farmers. | | b) | worked as independent craftsmenRead MoreEssay on Midterm Exam ( Review)1542 Words   |  7 PagesExam Review 1 Multiple Choice Identify the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question. ____ 1. Each of the following functions are within the framework for Human Resources Management EXCEPT: a. recruitment and selection. b. training and development. c. employee relations. d. employee discipline. 2. Which of the following is NOT a primary impact that technology has had on HRM? a. It has improved the processes of internal and external communications. b. It has altered the methodsRead MoreUs History Midterm Review777 Words   |  4 PagesUS History Midterm Study Guide General Government: 1. What were the Articles of Confederation? 2. Explain the roles of the three branches of the US government play? 3. Explain the political concept of Federalism 4. Be able to differentiate between Dual Federalism Cooperative Federalism (cake?) 5. What purpose does the Bill of Rights serve? 6. Identify the two houses of Congress and the term length of each. 7. What percentage of Congress has to vote to override a vetoRead MoreMidterm Review Questions Set 11481 Words   |  6 PagesREVIEW QUESTION SET #1 FOR THE MIDTERM EXAM QUESTION 1 (PRODUCTIVITY) ElectroPlus manufactures electronic components. It has recorded data for the last three years as shown in the table below. ElectroPlus Productivity Data (in millions of dollars) 2009 2010 2011 Sales 220 258 248 Materials 124 146 142 Labor 56 66 56 Overhead 16 24 20 a) Calculate a measure of labor productivity for each year and comment on the pattern. b) Calculate a measure of multifactor productivity for each year usingRead MorePsci 231 Midterm Review2130 Words   |  9 PagesSection One: 1. What is, â€Å"Utilitarianism† and why is it important to the study of businessgovernment relations? Utilitarianism is a usually described as the greatest happiness for the greatest number. It reflects the action that produces the most happiness for people; meaning that an action is good if it produces a higher ultility of happiness. The thoery treats all members of a society equally, balances the inequalities in wealth between rich and poor people and justifies human acts. For example

Martin Lynch-Gibbon, is a London wine merchant married to Antonia Free Essays

Martin Lynch-Gibbon, is a London wine merchant married to Antonia. They had wed due to convenience and they do not have a child. He is having an affair with Georgie, an academic younger than he is. We will write a custom essay sample on Martin Lynch-Gibbon, is a London wine merchant married to Antonia or any similar topic only for you Order Now She gets pregnant early on, but they end it. She attempts suicide after rejections by Martin and his brother. Seemingly out of nowhere, Antonia declares that she is leaving him. Martin is shocked. She goes with Palmer, one of their friends and her psychoanalyst. As it turns out, she and Palmer have been having an affair as well. Martin leaves their house, but he does not want his affair to go public, or be committed any further. Then he falls for Honor, Palmer’s stepsister who teaches anthropology at Cambridge. One night, he goes into her house uninvited and unannounced, and finds her in bed- with her stepbrother. Later, Antonia tells Martin that she has been seeing Alexander as well, his older brother, and it dates back to them having been introduced to each other. He turns to whisky to battle his problems. More than being an adulterer, he thinks of himself as a cuckold. â€Å"A Severed Head† explores fear of intimacy between the married couple, the fear of being in a relationship that values commitment. It also illuminates the ways in which sexual relationships are unraveled, especially when one manipulates or dominates the other. How to cite Martin Lynch-Gibbon, is a London wine merchant married to Antonia, Papers

Critical Care Nursing Health Restoration

Question: Describe about the Critical Care Nursing for Health Restoration. Answer: Introduction Sleep is a necessary natural function to preserve physiological and psychological health. Sleep is more vital for the critically ill patients of the intensive care unit for their health restoration. Yet, patients sleep in the ICU has been reported by a huge number of patients and their family members to be of reduced quality. Sleep alteration can be described as the apparent or definite changes in night-time sleep (both quantity and quality) with successive day-time deficiency. Sleep disruptions may be transient or acute, but frequently it is a recurrent difficulty in patients of intensive care unit. Sleep in ICU patients is frequently disrupted by diverse environmental factors of ICU settings. Sleep architecture gets significantly altered when sleep periods are fragmented by frequent awakenings due to ICU environmental factors. Numerous evidence suggested that a considerable percentage of ICU patients experience deprived sleep quality and repeated awakenings which subsequently contr ibute to physical and mental suffering. It is the duty of the nurses to mitigate these environmental factors contributing in sleep alteration for the wellbeing of the patients. Therefore, appropriate nursing interventions and recommendations are vital for patient-centered care. Sleeping alteration in intensive care patients Even though sickness, pain, discomfort, and medication subsidise to alterations of sleep patterns in patients of intensive care, the prime aspect producing sleep interruption is the ICU environment (Pisani 2015). Environmental elements including patient care activities (monitoring, therapeutic interventions and diagnostic measures), uncomfortable positions, excessive light, noise from several sources like alarms, conversations, ventilation, beepers, television and phones (Luetz et al. 2016) are have been purported to interrupt sleep in critically ill patients (Pisani et al. 2015). Major complaints from ICU patients include falling asleep, early morning awakenings with incapability to continue sleeping, remaining asleep, too much daytime drowsiness and non-restorative sleep (Pisani 2015). Irrespective of the causes, sleep alterations disrupts the circadian rhythm that plays an important role in the biological function and has been found to be connected with harmful bodily consequences such as fatigue,alterations in metabolism, immune function, protein catabolism and nitrogen stability (Pisani et al. 2015). Sleep deficiency and disturbance are identified to interrupt the recovery process in patients, reduce the quality of life and cognitive abilities. Furthermore, sleep pattern alterations can upsurge pain intensity, anxiety, and depression (Matthews 2011). According to the study of Carreira et al. (2015), even in critically ill patients without any sedation, sleep architecture, and quantity is severely disturbed. The severity of disease, comorbidities, and human interventions adversely upset sleep architecture and quantity. Sleep aberrations impact main ICU outcomes. Effects of noise level on sleep Noise intensities in ICU settings was recognized to be the prime environmental stressor for patients sleep alterations. Noise is a persistent factor in ICU due to the cacophony of medical activities and technological intensive care (Bihari et al. 2012).The World Health Organisation recommended that sound frequency within ICU must not surpass 30 decibel(A) at night in order to lessen sleep alteration. Noise intensities in ICU have progressively amplified over the last decades and healthcare professionals being the main source of the generated noises. Subjective investigations exploring the influences of sound on sleep specify that ICU patients ascertain the acquaintance to sound and incompetence to sleep as a key stressor (Luetz et al. 2016). In addition, objective surveys direct that the sound produced within the ICU environment is not favourable to the capability to sleep (Delaney et al. 2015). Effects of ICU medications on sleep Several of the drugs prescribed to the critically ill patients have strong effects of sleep pattern alterations. Opiates, antipsychotics, and benzodiazepines are associated with rapid eye movement sleep suppression. Standard sleep architecture can be affected by sedatives (Bihari et al. 2012). Sedation may have adverse impacts on sleep by affecting the normal characteristics of the sleep electroencephalogram (Matthews 2011 and Bihari et al. 2012). Figure 1: Impacts of drugs used in the Intensive Care Unit on sleep (Weinhouse and Schwab 2006). Physiological effects of sleep disturbance The chemo-sensitivity of the respiratory center of the brain is declined among sleep-deprived patients. Researches have showed many hostile impacts of sleep deficiency on respiratory muscle functioning (Kamdar et al. 2012). A substantial decrease in forced expiratory volume 1 (mean decline of six percent) and forced vital capacity (mean decline of five percent) in sleep-altered patients with the chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder compared to non-sleep-altered chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients have been observed. Findings suggest that sleep-deficient conditions may cause patient hypoventilation, harmfully causing pulmonary reserves and generally ability and readiness to accelerate preventing from mechanical ventilation (Delaney et al. 2015). The appearance of cardiovascular disorders due to sleep alteration originates from the stimulus of the sympathetic nervous structure and the discharge of the catecholamine adrenaline and noradrenaline. As a consequence, heart rate and blood pressure level get increased because of modifications in baroreflex sensitivity (Delaney et al. 2015). The adaptive immune system and the effective function of the T-cells was found to be susceptible to sleep alterations, as researchers have discovered that sleep performs a vital part in T-cells extravasation. Moreover, the functioning of natural killer cells was revealed to be harmfully affected by altered sleep conditions (Delaney et al. 2015). Disruption of circadian rhythm and sleep alteration in critical conditions cause dysfunction of innate immune response (Dengler et al. 2015). Irregular cortisol levels in intensive care patients cause disorders with circadian rhythms, as cortisol discharge is generally amplified earlier to awakening to facilitate the patient into a status prepared to be active. An escalation in cortisol amounts and reduction of melatonin creates a tendency for patients to be in the insomniac condition which can promote the worsening of catabolic activity and surges oxygen intake (Delaney et al. 2015). Sleep alterations negatively impact carbohydrate metabolism causing insulin resistance and clearance of glucose. The rise in sympathetic nervous system functioning and the subsequent pressure reaction overwhelms the discharge of insulin from -cells of pancreas. This event within the ICU patients can intensify underlying comorbidities, putting those patients at risks for other secondary complications. For instance, increased patient mortality has been linked with instability in blood glucose levels (Delaney et al. 2015). Psychological effects of sleep alteration Sleep alteration in ICU environment can lead to delirium. It is well-recognised that sleep alteration is a usual event in critically diseased patients and delirium arises often in patients at greater threats (Barr et al. 2013). A rising frame of evidence proposing that the advancement of delirium due to sleep alteration caused by the disturbing ICU environment is an independent prognosticator of the greater span of stay, amplified morbidity and mortality, disposition to an institutional setting from the hospital, and impairment of cognitive abilities during discharge from hospital (Pulak and Jensen 2016). Impacts of sleep alteration on social abilities and quality of life Numerous investigation data have established that sleep alteration has deleterious impacts on the patients quality of life in ICU both in the course of their hospitalization and for a different span of time afterward their discharge. It has been proposed that the sleep fragmentation, endured by ICU patients may be linked to persistent neurocognitive dysfunction (Barr et al. 2013). Contemporary studies of sleep alteration and chronic sleep deficiency have confirmed neuro-cognitive scarcities that mount up with time, regardless of any adaptation to the subjective sense of sleepiness (Kamdar et al. 2012). Clinical investigation of patients with obstructive sleep apnea, who also suffered from sleep alteration occasionally related with hemodynamic variability and hypoxia. These studies have exhibited the deformities in a wide range of neuro-cognitive and social activities some of which can even persist for months even after beginning of treatment with the constant affirmative approach (Ba rr et al. 2013). Role of the nurses in addressing and minimizing the impacts of sleep alteration in ICU Nurses deliver the holistic care to the patients. It is a prime duty of a nurse to evaluate and minimize alteration in sleep patterns of patients due to ICU environment. Evaluation of sleep alterations According to Matthews (2011), depending on the patient's condition, a nurse should evaluate how the ICU environment, treatment procedures, and medications subsidise to sleep alterations. Sleep evaluation can be characterized as objective, behavioral, and subjective. The most effective method of measuring sleep is polysomnography (Elliott et al. 2013). Bispectral index is another method practiced in ICU to measure sleep (Matthews 2011). Most efficient behavioral measure is actigraph. It a leg or wrist accelerometer that registers gross motor activities and rests over a prolonged period (Solverson and Doig 2014). Uninterrupted actigraph observation is used in seriously ill patients to direct usage of medications, sedative and improve recognition of agitation (Matthews 2011). Subjective assessment approaches such as nursing observations and self-reports of patients can offer additional useful means of assessing sleep features and effectiveness of sleep interventions. Sedation assessment tool that uses descriptive statistical measures is actually more accurate than results of sleep and non-sleep conditions (Matthews 2011). As described by Matthews (2011), using own appraisal of the patients about their sleep is necessary since they are capable of comparing normal quantity and quality sleep with the quantity and quality of sleep during their serious disease conditions. Everyday sleep records, visual analog scale and quality of life feedbacks are essential and have been practiced in a diverse critical care observations. For the patients with stable conditions, verbal communication of trouble in falling asleep, sleep fragmentation and restlessness required to be promoted on a regular basis with the procedure of formal evaluations.Patients and their family members can also contribute insights to etiological aspects and evaluation of their insight of sleep complications and potential respite methods can facilitate suitable treatment (Aitken et al. 2016). Even though objective accounts of the quantity of sleep periods and disruptions may vary from the perception of the patients, monitoring of sleep and wakeful behaviours over twenty-four hours, and representations of physical and mental sleep fragmentation (e.g., pain, sound, anxiety) may be beneficial in evolving a comprehensive care strategy (Matthews 2011). Nursing interventions of sleep alterations If evaluations suggest sleep alterations a multidisciplinary methodology should commence immediately. Incorporation of assessment result of patients sleep arrays and habitual sleep rituals into the care plan is significant. Normal sleep patterns are specific for each patient and data collected via holistic and comprehensive assessments are necessary to be determined the etiology of sleep alterations. Anxiety in the ICU environment interferes with sleep. Nursing interventions such as relaxation therapy can help patients reduce anxiety (Matthews 2011). A nurse should also evaluate the potential sources of noise and act to minimize those noises. Simple measures like providing quiet time to allow the patient's mind to slow down, comfortable temperature, ventilation and dim light can increase the quality of sleep (Maidl et al. 2014). Research has shown that mild back massage before bedtime can effectively promote sleep (Matthews 2011). Providing pain relief shortly before bedtime and posi tioning patients comfortably can promote sleep. Excessive noise can cause sleep alterations that can result in ICU psychosis. Keeping the ICU ambient quite by lowering the volume on television and radio, avoiding the use of intercoms, setting beepers on non-audio mode, talking quietly on the unit and anticipating alarms on IV pumps are obligatory (Luetz et al. 2016). Using sound generators with soothing sounds like rainfall, ocean, and waterfall can induce sleep (Su et al. 2013). Observation of patients medication and diet is vital because difficulty in sleeping can be a side of drugs such as bronchodilators. In situations like this, nurses need to change medications immediately after the evaluation findings. Benzodiazepinesare frequently recommended in the treatment of sleep alterations (Matthews 2011). Conclusion Sleep alterations and related health complications are crucial difficulties for patients in intensive care units. Different environmental factors of ICU such as patient care activities, uncomfortable positions, excessive light, and noises, all contribute to a incompetence of the patients to sleep. A collective methodology that integrates evaluations of sleep alterations and disturbances, behavioral interventions, control of environmental factors, appropriate pharmacological management and educational are essential to diminish the influence of sleep alterations and disturbances in patients of ICU. Following the comprehensive assessments of environmental aspects of ICU, an effective care plan must be developed to deliver times of uninterrupted sleep and reduce disturbance, identification of medication regimens that can promote sleep and recommendation non-pharmacological interventions constructed on individual requirements and desires or the patients. Nurses possess the suitable positi on to detect problems in their own units that can hamper quality and quantity patients sleep. Support from not only the nurses but also from all associates of the healthcare crew is necessary for implementing environmental modifications and make advancement in addressing sleep and energy requirements for the patients. References Aitken, L.M., Elliott, R., Mitchell, M., Davis, C., Macfarlane, B., Ullman, A., Wetzig, K., Datt, A. and McKinley, S., 2016. Sleep assessment by patients and nurses in the intensive care: An exploratory descriptive study.Australian Critical Care. Barr, J., Fraser, G.L., Puntillo, K., Ely, E.W., Glinas, C., Dasta, J.F., Davidson, J.E., Devlin, J.W., Kress, J.P., Joffe, A.M. and Coursin, D.B., 2013. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of pain, agitation, and delirium in adult patients in the intensive care unit.Critical care medicine, 41(1), pp.263-306. Bihari, S., McEvoy, R.D., Matheson, E., Kim, S., Woodman, R.J. and Bersten, A.D., 2012. Factors affecting sleep quality of patients in intensive care unit.J Clin Sleep Med,8(3), pp.301-7. Carreira, S., Lavault, S., Pallanca, O., Mayaux, J., Delemazure, J., Arnulf, I., Similowski, T. and Demoule, A., 2015. Risk Factors and Prognostic Impact of Sleep Alterations in ICU Patients: A Prospective Observational Polysomnographic Study. InD16. PREDICTING RISK AND OUTCOMES FOR CRITICAL ILLNESS(pp. A5397-A5397). American Thoracic Society. Delaney, L.J., Haren, F. and Lopez, V., 2015. Sleeping on a problem: the impact of sleep disturbance on intensive care patients-a clinical review. Annals of intensive care,5(1), p.1. Dengler, V., Westphalen, K. and Koeppen, M., 2015. Disruption of circadian rhythms and sleep in critical illness and its impact on innate immunity. Current pharmaceutical design,21(24), pp.3469-3476. Elliott, R., McKinley, S., Cistulli, P. and Fien, M., 2013. Characterisation of sleep in intensive care using 24-hour polysomnography: an observational study.Critical Care,17(2), p.1. Kamdar, B.B., Needham, D.M. and Collop, N.A., 2012. Sleep deprivation in critical illness its role in physical and psychological recovery.Journal of intensive care medicine,27(2), pp.97-111. Luetz, A., Weiss, B., Penzel, T., Fietze, I., Glos, M., Wernecke, K.D., Bluemke, B., Dehn, A.M., Willemeit, T., Finke, A. and Spies, C., 2016. Feasibility of noise reduction by a modification in ICU environment.Physiological measurement,37(7), p.1041. Maidl, C.A., Leske, J.S. and Garcia, A.E., 2014. The influence of quiet time for patients in critical care.Clinical nursing research,23(5), pp.544-559. Matthews, E.E., 2011. Sleep disturbances and fatigue in critically ill patients. AACN advanced critical care,22(3), p.204. Pisani, M., 2015. Sleep in the intensive care unit: An oft-neglected key to health restoration.Heart Lung: The Journal of Acute and Critical Care, 44(2), p.87. Pisani, M.A., Friese, R.S., Gehlbach, B.K., Schwab, R.J., Weinhouse, G.L. and Jones, S.F., 2015. Sleep in the intensive care unit.American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine,191(7), pp.731-738. Pulak, L.M. and Jensen, L., 2016. Sleep in the Intensive Care Unit A Review.Journal of intensive care medicine,31(1), pp.14-23. Solverson, K. and Doig, C., 2014. An assessment of long-term sleep quality using actigraphy in survivors of critical illness.Critical Care,18(1), p.1. Su, C.P., Lai, H.L., Chang, E.T., Yiin, L.M., Perng, S.J. and Chen, P.W., 2013. A randomized controlled trial of the effects of listening to non-commercial music on quality of nocturnal sleep and relaxation indices in patients in medical intensive care unit.Journal of advanced nursing,69(6), pp.1377-1389.

Research Paper on Information Theory Essay Example

Research Paper on Information Theory Essay Information theory is the study of how the transfer of information can be done most effectively. The so-called statistical information theory was founded in the mid-1900s by Claude Shannon as part of a communication theory he developed, where the information theoretical concept of entropy plays a central role. In his theory, information measure is a measure of the increased determination degree you will be provided a variety of possible alternatives reduced to a smaller amount of options. This is measured as the logarithm of the ratio of the number of options before and after the reduction. This information measure is used inter alia in communication theory for calculating a channel capacity to transfer information and in coding theory for calculating the redundancy, and the degree of data compression possible. An example of areas in which the theory has gained much importance is telecommunications, computer technology, space technology, and biology. In most cases, this involves sending a complete message from a sender to a receiver. We will write a custom essay sample on Research Paper on Information Theory specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Research Paper on Information Theory specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Research Paper on Information Theory specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The history of the information theory dates back to the 1940s, when Claude Elwood Shannon delivered significant contributions to the theory of data transmission and probability theory. He wondered how to ensure lossless data transmission channels via electronic (and optical today). This involves, in particular, to separate the data signals from the background noise. He was also trying to identify errors occurring during the transmission and correct it. The additional redundant (bearing no additional information) is necessary for the data to be sent and received, as well as to be verified or corrected. It is doubtful and was not claimed by Shannon that his 1948 study published A Mathematical Theory of Communication is of substantial importance for issues outside the communications technology. The concept of entropy used by him, associated with the thermodynamics is a formal analogy for a mathematical expression. In general can be defined as an engineering theory at a high abstraction level of information theory. It shows the trend for the scientific nature of art, which led to the formation of the engineering sciences. The reference point of Shannon’s theory is the accelerated development of electrical communications technology with its forms of telegraphy, telephony, radio, and television in the first half of the 20th Century. Before and next to Shannon there were Harry Nyquist, RVL Hartley, and Karl Kupfmuller who made important contributions to the theory of communication engineering. Norbert Wiener gave mathematical clarifications of relevance to the information theory, which helped its considerable publicity in the context of his reflections on cybernetics. If you need a good source of a highly urgent data you will need to look through free sample research papers on information theory, which will give a clear understanding of the issue. Are you looking for a top-notch custom research paper on Information Theory topics? Is confidentiality as important to you as the high quality of the product? Try our writing service at EssayLib.com! We can offer you professional assistance at affordable rates. Our experienced PhD and Master’s writers are ready to take into account your smallest demands. We guarantee you 100% authenticity of your paper and assure you of dead on time delivery. Proceed with the order form: Please, feel free to visit us at EssayLib.com and learn more about our service!

Critically evaluate the empirical support for Piagets theory of the stages of cognitive development The WritePass Journal

Critically evaluate the empirical support for Piagets theory of the stages of cognitive development Introduction Critically evaluate the empirical support for Piagets theory of the stages of cognitive development IntroductionReferences.Related Introduction Cognitive development overlooks the way children learn which Piaget (1896-1980) has had a great influence on. Piaget observed children throughout activities by interacting with them verbally and active listening. Piaget (1952) believed that children move through various stages in order to develop.   In order for children to develop they had to pass the four stages, Piaget (1952) names the stages as follows, sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operations and formal operational. However there have been many criticisms made by many theorists such as siegler, case, Lewis etc. In this essay I will be evaluating Piaget’s theory stages of development critically and coming to a conclusion. Piaget had a broad horizon on cognitive development. He felt that in order for a development to be passed a child creates schemas.   Piaget (1951) schemas are senses of experiences gained by a child from birth. A schema represents a child’s physical and mental capability, for an example a new born child begins to grasp, suck, blink etc. In order for a child to go through the next stage he should be intellectually and mentally fit. The first stage is the sensori-motor, this stage start from birth to 2 years. During this stage children begin to use their senses to create senses in order to develop such as see, hear, touch etc. Piaget (1952) did a task with children ages 8 to 12 months. He called this task â€Å"object permanence†, where he hid an attractive toy away from the child. The child responded by pushing objects away to find the toy. His findings showed him that children began to problem solve and have an understanding. The second stage is the preoperational stage. This stage occurs from 2 to 7 years. Piaget (1936) felt that children were not intellectually capable as their perception was dominating the way they saw situations. He believed that there were many limitations to the way children will think during this stage. The first limitation was egocentration where their own perceptions are being dominated by themselves. Piaget felt that young children are unable to express their views other than their own. In order to prove this he created a task called â€Å"three mountains task†. He came to the conclusion that children up to the age of seven could not identify what the doll could see as they would only answer what they could. The second limitation to this stage is centration which Piaget (1936) believed that children could only focus on one situation going on at one time ignoring others. Piaget (1952) created a task called â€Å"conservation†, this task involved objects which were t ransformed into different lengths, shapes etc. From this task he found out that children cannot focus or understand the concept of height while concentrating on the width. Robert Siegler (1981) replicated Piaget’s (1958) â€Å"Balance Beam† task to see why children could not solve conservation tasks. However Siegler (1981) believed that there are some strategies which children use in order to complete tasks. From his experiment he found that children below 5 could not use the first strategy but used strategy 2 and 3. The third stage is concrete operations. This stage starts from 7 to 12 years. This stage strongly focuses on reasoning. At this stage children are able to see and understand conservation tasks, size, height etc. There are 4 areas which consist within this stage conservation, classification, seriation. Conservation involves children to problem solve mathematically. Classification is for children 7 to 10, Piaget (1967) has said classification is what children in those ages should be able to understand and group objects relating them to their characteristics. Seriation is children able to put things in order for example in size, colour shape, numbers etc. This stage is allowing children to experiment with real objects in order to explore and problem solve. Piaget (1967) did an experiment for seriation with sticks where he found out that, children can put into series of order but make many mistakes.   He found that above 6 years can put in order in no time and correctly. The final stage is formal operational. This stage occurs in children around 11 according to Piaget (1958). At this stage children are thinking like adults where they can easily problems in their head with ease. Piaget (1958) constructed a task called â€Å"pendulum†. From this task he found out children do little mistakes but learn from them and all three stages pre- operational, concrete and formal operational are concurred and passed. Lewis (1981) did an experiment to show that not all teenagers at the age of 11 can think like adults, he found out that 50-60% teenagers used formal operations. This shows that not all teenagers including adults use this stage. However Bryant (1974) had criticised that tasks that Piaget (1936, 1951, 1952) did to prove his theory were very hard for children to do. Bryant (1974) proved that Piaget was a bit harsh in tasks with children so he constructed a task where he found out that children under 5 were able to do the tasks without any hesitation. This shows the Piaget (1952) did have a good theory but didn’t have the right task for the age group which the children didn’t answer correctly. Robbie case (1992, 1998) did an experiment to see that a child’s development is not just about schemas or to see their cognitive development, but it includes information processing, which is internal capacity of a child.   Cases’ (1992, 1998) theory shows that children have not got enough memory capacity to help them process and develop. So as children grow older they concur the stage. This essay has come to the conclusion that Piaget’s theory has a good source of empirical support to prove his theory. Piaget himself has underpinned numerous tasks such as 3 mountains task, pendulum, object permanence, in order prove his stages of development. However other theorists such as Bryant (1947), Case (1992), Lewis(1981) and Siegler (1981) have proved that there more to the stages of development for example case (1992) has showed that information processing has an equivalent contribution. Nevertheless Piaget had a great impact on cognitive development whereas as many theorists have been inspired. References. Berk. E. L. (2009). Child Development. United States: Library of Congress Cataloging-in- Publication Data pages, 22-24,224-257,278, 280-281, 293. Birch, A. (1997).   Developmental psychology.   London: Macmillean Press LTD, pages 65-80,111-113. Piaget, J. (1955). The Childs Construction of Reality, trans. London: M. Cook. Piaget, J. (1959). The Language and Thought of the Child. London: Routeledge and Kegan Paul. Siegler R. S. (1998). Childrens Thinking 3rd edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, pages 44, 66-67, 74-78.

Obsidian - Volcanic Glass Prized for Stone Tool Making

Obsidian - Volcanic Glass Prized for Stone Tool Making The volcanic glass called obsidian was highly prized in prehistory where ever it was found. The glassy material comes in a range of colors from black to green to bright orange, and it is found everywhere rhyolite-rich volcanic deposits are found. Most obsidian is a deep rich black, but, for example, pachuca obsidian, from a source in Hidalgo and distributed throughout Mesoamerica during the Aztec period, is a translucent green color with a golden yellow sheen to it. Pico de Orizaba, from a source in southeastern Puebla is almost completely colorless. Obsidian Qualities The qualities that made obsidian a favorite trade item are its shiny beauty, its easily worked fine texture, and the sharpness of its flaked edges. Archaeologists are fond of it because of obsidian hydration-a relatively secure (and relatively low cost) way to date the period an obsidian tool was last flaked. Sourcing obsidianthat is to say, discovering where the raw stone from a particular obsidian artifact came fromis typically conducted through trace element analysis. Although obsidian is always made up of volcanic rhyolite, each deposit has slightly different amounts of trace elements in it. Scholars identify the chemical fingerprint of each deposit through such methods as X-ray fluorescence or neutron activation analysis  and then compare that to what is found in an obsidian artifact. Alca Obsidian Alca is  a type of obsidian that is  solid and banded black, gray, maroon brown and bottled black maroon brown, that is found in volcanic deposits in the Andes mountains between 3700-5165 meters (12,140-16,945 feet) above sea level. The largest known concentrations of Alca are at the east rim of the Cotahuasi Canyon and in the Pucuncho basin. The Alca sources are among the most extensive sources of obsidian in South America; only the Laguna de Maule source in Chile and Argentina has comparable exposure.   Three types of Alca, Alca-1, Alca-5 and Alca-7, outcrop on the alluvial fans of the Pucuncho basin. These cannot be discerned with the naked eye, but they can be identified on the basis of geochemical characteristics, identified through ED-XRF and NAA (Rademaker et al. 2013). Stone tool workshops at the sources in the Pucuncho basin have been dated to the Terminal Pleistoceneand stone tools dated to the same 10,000-13,000 year range have been discovered at Quebrada Jaguay on the coast of Peru. Sources For information on dating obsidian ,  see the article on obsidian hydration. See the History of Glass Making, if thats what interests you. For more rock science on the substance, see the geology entry for obsidian. For the heck of it, try the Obsidian Trivia Quiz. Freter A. 1993. Obsidian-hydration dating: Its past, present, and future application in Mesoamerica. Ancient Mesoamerica 4:285-303. Graves MW, and Ladefoged TN. 1991. The disparity between radiocarbon and volcanic glass dates: New evidence from the island of Lanai, Hawaii. Archaeology in Oceania 26:70-77. Hatch JW, Michels JW, Stevenson CM, Scheetz BE, and Geidel RA. 1990. Hopewell obsidian studies: Behavioral implications of recent sourcing and dating research. American Antiquity 55(3):461-479. Hughes RE, Kay M, and Green TJ. 2002. Geochemical and Microwear Analysis of an Obsidian Artifact from the Brown Bluff Site (3WA10), Arkansas. Plains Anthropologist 46(179). Khalidi L, Oppenheimer C, Gratuze B, Boucetta S, Sanabani A, and al-Mosabi A. 2010. Obsidian sources in highland Yemen and their relevance to archaeological research in the Red Sea region. Journal of Archaeological Science 37(9):2332-2345. Kuzmin YV, Speakman RJ, Glascock MD, Popov VK, Grebennikov AV, Dikova MA, and Ptashinsky AV. 2008. Obsidian use at the Ushki Lake complex, Kamchatka Peninsula (Northeastern Siberia): implications for terminal Pleistocene and early Holocene human migrations in Beringia. Journal of Archaeological Science 35(8):2179-2187. Liritzis I, Diakostamatiou M, Stevenson C, Novak S, and Abdelrehim I. 2004. Dating of hydrated obsidian surfaces by SIMS-SS. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry 261(1):51–60. Luglie C, Le Bourdonnec F-X, Poupeau G, Atzeni E, Dubernet S, Moretto P, and Serani L. 2006. Early Neolithic obsidians in Sardinia (Western Mediterranean): the Su Carroppu case. Journal of Archaeological Science 34(3):428-439. Millhauser JK, Rodrà ­guez-Alegrà ­a E, and Glascock MD. 2011. Testing the accuracy of portable X-ray fluorescence to study Aztec and Colonial obsidian supply at Xaltocan, Mexico. Journal of Archaeological Science 38(11):3141-3152. Moholy-Nagy H, and Nelson FW. 1990. New data on sources of obsidian artifacts from Tikal, Guatemala. Ancient Mesoamerica 1:71-80. Negash A, Shackley MS, and Alene M. 2006. Source provenance of obsidian artifacts from the Early Stone Age (ESA) site of Melka Konture, Ethiopia. Journal of Archaeological Science 33:1647-1650. Peterson J, Mitchell DR, and Shackley MS. 1997. The social and economic contexts of lithic procureent: obsidian from classic-period Hohokam sites. American Antiquity 62(2):213-259. Rademaker K, Glascock MD, Kaiser B, Gibson D, Lux DR, and Yates MG. 2013. Multi-technique geochemical characterization of the Alca obsidian source, Peruvian Andes. Geology 41(7):779-782. Shackley MS. 1995. Sources of archaeological obsidian in the Greater American southwest: An update and quantitative analysis. American Antiquity 60(3):531-551. Spence MW. 1996. Commodity or gift: Teotihuacan obsidian in the Maya region. Latin American Antiquity 7(1):21-39. Stoltman JB, and Hughes RE. 2004. Obsidian in Early Woodland Contexts in the Upper Mississippi Valley. American Antiquity 69(4):751-760. Summerhayes GR. 2009. Obsidian network patterns in Melanesia: Sources, characterisation, and distribution. IPPA Bulletin 29:109-123. Also Known As: Volcanic glass Examples: Teotihuacan and Catal Hoyuk are just two of the sites where obsidian was clearly considered an important stone resource.

Developing Successful Business Teams Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Developing Successful Business Teams - Essay Example Characteristics of team and its contribution to the overall success of the organisation: Team can be defined as a group of people working together to achieve a common target for the welfare of the organisation. However, Dackert, et al. (2010) cited that in a team, the members complement the strengths and weakness of each other. The characteristics of an ideal team such as in Apple Inc., has been mentioned as under: A team leader: Each of the team operates under a team leader. Team leader directs the right path and motivates the members to achieve the targets. The success of effective teamwork in Apple Inc. depends primarily on the leadership quality of Steve Jobs. A common goal: Each of the team members’ work to meet a common short term and long term objectives that improves the business performance of the company. In Apple Inc., the staff are dedicated to provide unique and innovative technical solutions to the customers. Communication : An effective team work includes free communication among the team members. In Apple Inc., the employees can share the feelings and ideas with each other. Moreover, the staff of Apple Inc .are also allowed having an open communication with the leaders. Measurement of team performance: The teamwork of a particular department is being measured by the managers at a regular interval of time. In the company, the managers conduct a team meeting in every month with the team members to discuss the progress of the ongoing project.